FAQ: Historical Hurricane Information
Where can I get historical data on tropical cyclones?
Contributed by Chris Landsea
Free Data
- HURDAT For more detailed information regarding the re-analysis of the
Atlantic hurricane database (currently 1851 to 1885) surf to our
HURDAT page.
- Unisys The HURDAT information has be rendered into graphic form by
Unisys Corporation and includes a track graphic as well as an ASCII
listing for each storm since 1851.
- NOAA Coastal Services Center NOAA's
Coastal Services Center has put together a very nice interactive
website which allows the user to search the HURDAT data base by location. You
may select a major city or latitude and longitude and find how many storms of a
particular strength and over particular ranges of time and proximity have
approached that point.
Not-Free Data
Web Site Historical Data
Provided by Gary Gray
What journals have regular articles on tropical
cyclones?
Contributed by Chris Landsea
The American Meteorological Society publishes the
Monthly Weather Review which has annual summaries of Atlantic basin
tropical cyclones, Atlantic basin tropical disturbances, and Northeast Pacific
(east of 140W) basin tropical cyclones. These summaries have a substantial
amount of data and analysis of the storms.
Weatherwise prints
annual summaries of both the Atlantic and Northeast Pacific basins which are
less technical than the
Monthly Weather Review articles, but come out months earlier.
For just the tropical cyclones of the Southeast Indian/Australia and the
Australia/Southwest Pacific basins, the
Australia Meteorological Magazine has a very thorough annual
summary.
The Indian journal Mausam carries an annual summary of tropical cyclone
activity over the North Indian Ocean.
Mariner's Weather Log has articles from all of the global basins in
annual summaries. These are descriptive and non-technical.
What books have been written about tropical cyclones?
Contributed by Chris Landsea
Best Non-Technical Books:
- Hurricanes: Their Nature and Impacts on Society
An excellent introductory text into hurricanes (and tropical cyclones in
general), this book by R.A. Pielke, Jr. and R.A. Pielke, Sr. provides the
basics on the physical mechanisms of hurricanes without getting into any
mathematical rigor. The book also discusses hurricane policy, vulnerability and
societal responses and ends with an in-depth look at Hurricane Andrew's
forecast, impact and response. Roger A. Pielke, Jr. is a Sociologist at the
Environmental and Societal Impacts Group at the National Center for Atmospheric
Research in Boulder, Colorado, USA. Roger A. Pielke, Sr. is a Professor of
Atmospheric Science at Colorado State University (USA). The book's 1997 edition
is available through John Wiley & Sons, Chichester.
- Meteorology Today for Scientists and Engineers
For a concise mathematical description of hurricanes that has NO calculus and
NO differential equations, then I would suggest obtaining a copy of this book
by Rolland B. Stull (West Publ. Co., Minneapolis/St. Paul, 385 pp - Chapter 16
Hurricanes p289-304). This paperback book is designed to accompany C. Donald
Ahrens' introductory book Meteorology Today.
Best Technical Book:
- Global Perspectives on Tropical Cyclones
This is the revised version of A Global View of Tropical Cyclones and is
the most current, detailed book available on the subject. This book provides
the state of the science as of 1994. Improvements over the previous version
include a chapter on the ocean response to tropical cyclones. This paperback
book is written in 1995 by G.R. Foley, H.E. Willoughby, J.L. McBride, R.L.
Elsberry, I. Ginis, and L. Chen with Elsberry serving as Editor and is
available from the World Meteorological Organization as Report No. TCP-38.
Their address is:
World Meteorological Organization
Publications Sales Unit
Case Postale 2300
CH-1211 Geneva 2
Switzerland
Best Forecasting Manual:
- Global Guide to Tropical Cyclone Forecasting
For the tropical cyclone forecaster and also of general interest for anyone in
the field and those with a non-technical interest in the field, the loose-leaf
book - Global Guide to Tropical Cyclone Forecasting (1993) by G.J.
Holland (ed.), World Meteorological Organization,
WMO/TD-No. 560, Report No. TCP-31 is a must get. Again, the address of
the WMO :a
World Meteorological Organization
Publications Sales Unit
Case Postale 2300
CH-1211 Geneva 2
Switzerland
Best Historical Book:
- North Carolina's Hurricane History
- Florida's Hurricane History
These two books are an amazing documentaries of the hurricanes which have
struck the states of North Carolina and Florida from 1526 until 1996 and
1546-1995, respectively. The author Jay Barnes - Director of the North Carolina
Aquarium - tells the stories of the hurricanes and their effects upon the
people of the state in an easily readable style with numerous photographs.
These 1998 books are available through the University of North Carolina Press.
Other Books Available:
- Hurricanes, Their Nature and History
Before Dunn and Miller's book, Ivan Ray Tannehill came out with an
authoritative reference on the history, structure, climatology, historical
tracks, and forecasting techniques of Atlantic hurricanes as was known by the
mid-1930s. This is one of the first compilations of yearly tracks of Atlantic
storms - he provides tracks of memorable tropical cyclones all the way back to
the 1700s and shows all the storm tracks yearly from 1901 onward. The first
edition came out in 1938 and the book went through at least nine editions (my
book was published in 1956). Mr. Tannehill was engaged in hurricane forecasting
for over 20 years and also lead the Division of Synoptic Reports and Forecasts
of the U.S. Weather Bureau. Princeton University Press, 308 pp (in 1956
version).
- Atlantic Hurricanes
A classic book describing tropical cyclones primarily of the Atlantic basin,
but also covering the physical understanding of tropical cyclone genesis,
motion, and intensity change at the time is Atlantic Hurricanes by
Gordon E. Dunn and Banner I. Miller. Written in 1960, published by the
Louisiana State Press, this book gives provides good insight into the knowledge
of tropical cyclones as of the late 1950s. It is interesting to observe that
much of what we know was well understood at this pre- satellite era. Gordon E.
Dunn was the Director of the U.S. National Hurricane Center and Banner I.
Miller was a research meteorologist also at the National Hurricane Center.
- A Global View of Tropical Cyclones
A very thorough book dealing with the technical issues of tropical cyclones for
the state of the science in the mid-1980s: A Global View of Tropical Cyclones (1987) by Elsberry, Holland, Frank, Jarrell, and Southern; University of
Chicago Press, 195 pp. A revised version of this book has recently become
available, see Global Perspectives on Tropical Cyclones below.
- The Hurricane
A very good introductory text into hurricanes (and tropical cyclones in
general), this book by R.A. Pielke provides the basics on the physical
mechanisms of hurricanes without getting into any mathematical rigor. This
first version is just 100 pages of text with another 120 pages devoted toward
all of the tracks of Atlantic hurricanes from 1871-1989. Roger A. Pielke is a
professor of Atmospheric Science at Colorado State University (USA). The book's
1990 edition is available through Routledge Publishing, New York. An updated
version of this book is available in 1997 as Hurricanes: Their Nature and
Impacts on Society by Pielke and Pielke.
- Tropical Cyclones of the North Atlantic Ocean, 1871-1992
Researchers and those who follow Atlantic hurricanes should all have a copy of
the atlas: Tropical Cyclones of the North Atlantic Ocean, 1871-1992, by
C.J. Neumann, B.R. Jarvinen, C.J. McAdie, J.D. Elms; Asheville, NC, (1993),
Prepared by the National Climatic Data Center, Asheville, NC, in cooperation
with the National Hurricane Center, Coral Gables, FL, 193 pp. (This is the
previous edition of Neumann et al. 1999.)
- Hurricanes
An introductory text book for young readers on hurricanes by Sally Lee,
Franklin Watts Publishing, New York, 63 pp (1993).
- Cyclone Tracy, Picking up the Pieces
Twenty years after Cyclone Tracy, this book recreates, by interviews with
survivors, the events during and after the cyclone that nearly destroyed
Darwin, Australia: Cyclone Tracy, Picking up the pieces, B. Bunbury,
(1994), Fremantle Arts Centre Press, South Fremantle, Australia, 148 pp.
- Beware the Hurricane!
This book tells "the story of the cyclonic tropical storms that have struck
Bermuda and the Islanders' folk-lore regarding them" by Terry Tucker. It is
published by The Island Press Limited, Bermuda in 1995, 180 pp.
- Florida Hurricanes and Tropical Storms, Revised Edition
This recent book provides a historical perspective of Florida Hurricanes
extending from 1871 to 1996 by J.M. Williams and I. W. Duedall, (1997), Florida
Sea Grant College Program, University of Florida Press, Gainesville, Florida,
USA, 146 pp.
- Hurricanes of the North Atlantic
This book by J. B. Elsner and A. B. Kara focuses on the statistics and
variability of Atlantic hurricanes as well as detailed discussions on how
hurricanes impact the insurance industry and how integrated assessments can be
made regarding these storms. The book provides very valuable information on
hurricane frequencies, intensities and return periods that are not easily
available elsewhere. Also sections are devoted on the development of seasonal
(and longer) hurricane forecast models and their performance. This 1999 book is
available through Oxford University Press, New York/Oxford, 488 pp.
- Natural Disasters - Hurricanes
This reference book by P. J. Fitzpatrick provides a very useful compilation of
a wide range of topics on Atlantic hurricanes. Of particular interest is the
chronology of advances in the science and forecasting of hurricanes along with
biographical sketches of researchers and forecasters prominent in the field.
This book is an excellent resource in answering questions on many issues in the
field. This 1999 book is available through ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, California,
286 pp.
- Tropical Cyclones of the North Atlantic Ocean, 1871-1998
Researchers and those who follow Atlantic hurricanes should all have a copy of
the atlas: Tropical Cyclones of the North Atlantic Ocean, 1871-1998, by
C.J. Neumann, B.R. Jarvinen, C.J. McAdie, and G. R. Hammer, Asheville, NC,
(1999), Prepared by the National Climatic Data Center, Asheville, NC, in
cooperation with the Tropical Prediction Center/National Hurricane Center,
Miami, FL, 206 pp.
- Hurricanes and Florida Agriculture
Hurricanes and Florida Agriculture by Dr. John A. Attaway, former
Scientific Research Director of the Florida Department of Citrus, is a well
researched history and litany of the impacts that hurricanes have had upon
agriculture in Florida. This 1999 book is available from Florida Science
Source, Inc., Lake Alfred, Florida, 444 pp.
What fictional books, plays, and movies have been
written involving tropical cyclones?
Contributed by Neal Dorst
There is an undeniable drama to hurricanes; their massive scale affecting the
lives of thousands, the foreshadowing of impending doom, and their ponderous
pace as they approach the shore. This has made them ideal plot elements in many
fictional works. Below is an admittedly partial list of some novels, plays, and
movies which have used hurricanes as a major dramatic element.
- The Tempest (1611) by William Shakespeare
Inspired by a 1609 hurricane which shipwrecked the Sea View on the
island of Bermuda, in the opening act Prospero magically conjures up a sea
storm to bring a ship to his island exile.
- "Wreck Of The Hesperus" (1839) By Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
Although the old Sailor "fears a hurricane" the storm in this poem is more
likely a nor'easter.
- Chita : A Memory of Last Island (1889) by Lafcadio Hearn
In this novella a young Cajun girl survives the 1856 hurricane that wiped out
the resort on Last Island and is raised by a Spanish fisherman on the Louisiana
coast.
- Son of the Carolinas (1898) by Elizabeth Carpenter Satterthwait
A story of a hurricane striking the Sea Islands off the Georgia coast. Noted
for its use of the native dialect.
- Wed by Mighty Waves (1901) by Sue Greenleaf
A romantic novel set against the horrors of the Galveston hurricane.
- Typhoon (1903) by Joseph Conrad
In this short story a steamer blunders into the teeth of a typhoon in the South
China Sea.
- Hurricane (1935) by Charles Nordhoff and James Norman Hall
The duo that wrote the "Mutiny on the Bounty" trilogy reunited to bring us this
tale of a devastating typhoon in French Polynesia which alters the lives of the
residents of the island of Manukura. This novel was made into a movie twice,
once in 1938 starring Dorothy Lamour and Jon Hall and a remake in 1979 with Mia
Farrow and Dayton Ka'ne. The first effort had a musical hit with the song "The
Moon of Manukura". In order to capitalize on the first film's popularity
another studio in 1940 paired Lamour with Robert Preston in "Typhoon" (not
based on the Conrad story), and in 1951 Jon Hall and Marie Windsor starred in
"Hurricane Island", but there may not be an actual hurricane in "Hurricane
Island".
- Their Eyes Were Watching God (1937) by Zora Neale Hurston
The principle characters survive the Lake Okeechobee hurricane of 1928 only to
suffer the devastating aftermath.
- When Tomorrow Comes (1939) directed by John Stahl
Charles Boyer, a concert pianist, and Irene Dunne, a union organizer, are
trapped in a church by the storm surge of the Great New England hurricane, and
must come to grips with their relationship. Won an Oscar (c) for Best Sound, no
doubt for the hurricane's wind.
- Storm (1941) by George R. Stewart
Actually this novel is not about a hurricane, but an extratropical cyclone.
However, I give it an honorable mention here since it depicts a Junior
Meteorologist who has a personal habit of naming storms. This helped to
popularize the idea of naming hurricanes. It was made into a Disney TV movie "A
Storm named Maria" in 1958, and inspired the song "They Call the Wind Maria"
from 1951's Lerner and Lowe play "Paint Your Wagon".
- Key Largo (1948) by Richard Brooks Directed by John Huston
This movie starred Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall and was loosely based on a
1939 play by Maxwell Anderson. Mobster Edward G. Robinson holds several people
hostage in a Keys' hotel as a hurricane bares down on them.
- Slattery's Hurricane (1949) by Herman Wouk
Set in post-World War 2 Miami, a man seeks redemption by flying a hurricane
reconnaissance mission for a Navy buddy. The movie opened in 1949 with Richard
Widmark and Veronica Lake. It proved popular enough for Wouk to serialize the
script for magazine publication, and in 1951 it was released in paperback.
- The Caine Mutiny (1951) by Herman Wouk
The climactic scene aboard the USS Caine takes places as Halsey's fleet has its
fatal run-in with Typhoon Cobra. Wouk adapted his novel in 1953 for a play
starring Lloyd Noland and John Hodiak and for the movies in 1954 with Humphrey
Bogart and Van Johnson.
- Hurricane Road (1954) by Nora K. Smiley and Louise V. White
A Novel of a Railroad that Went to Sea. Fictional account of the building of
Henry Flager's railroad to Key West, and the devastating hurricane in 1906
which nearly destroyed it and the Labor Day hurricane in 1935 which did.
- A Journey to Matecumbe (1961) by Robert Lewis Taylor
Tells the tale of two young men traveling the post-bellum South to search for
their fortunes in the Florida Keys. Along the way they dodge Klansmen and
survive a hurricane. This was adapted by Disney Studios in 1976 into the film
"Treasure of Matecumbe" starring Robert Foxworth and Joan Hackett.
- Wyatt's Hurricane (1966) by Desmond Bagley
Set on a lush Caribbean island, meteorologist David Wyatt knows that Hurricane
Mabel will hit despite what the forecast says. Throw in a political revolution
and some romance and you've got a mid-60's suspense novel.
- Hurricane in the Keys (1968) by Henry Hayes Stansbury
This self-published novel tells of a Category Five hurricane threatening the
Florida Keys and the President of the United States' decision to order the
seeding of the storm.
- Devil Walks on Water (1969) by John F. Murray
A novel based on accounts of survival from the 1938 New England hurricane.
- On the Wings of the Storm (1969) by Richard Newhafer
A heist caper set in Palm Beach as Hurricane Margo threatens. Thanks to
Christine McGehee for bringing this gem to our attention.
- Marooned (1969) directed by John Sturges
Three Apolo astronauts are trapped in their orbiting capsule when the re-entry
rockets fail, so Gregory Peck (NASA) must launch David Jansen's rescue rocket
in the eye of a hurricane. Lampooned by Mystery Science Theater 3000.
- Hurricane Alert (1970) by Walter T. Donovan
A Florida county Civil Defense director must battle political corruption as
Hurricane Hanna looms in this 'gut grabber'.
- Hurricane Hunters (1972) by William C. Anderson
This novel concentrates on the lives and loves of Air Force Hurricane Hunter
pilots. It was adapted into a made-for-TV movie in 1974 called "Hurricane"
starring Martin Milner and Frank Sutton.
- Condominium (1977) by John MacDonald
Residents of a condo in southwest Florida are beset by unscrupulous real estate
developers, faulty construction, and a Gulf hurricane.
- Cat Five (1977) by Robert P. Davis.
As a Category Five hurricane menaces ritzy Palm Beach, hurricane researchers
are torn apart by a blistering love triangle. OK, this one made me laugh.
- Storm Center (1983) by Elizabeth Verner Hamilton
Novel based on her family's accounts of surviving the Great Hurricane of 1893
hitting Charleston, SC.
- Mother of Storms (1994) by John Barnes
When someone sets off a series of underwater explosions it releases large
quantities of methane from melting methal hydrates, which in turn triggers
global warming and hyper-hurricanes. The only hope lies with an astronaut with
a brain the size of a small planet, who shields the Earth from the sun until
things cool down.
- Stormy Weather (1996) by Carl Hiassen
In this novel inspired by Hurricane Andrew, people's lives in the wake of a
devastating hurricane are further stressed by con men, shady contractors, and a
former Lt. Governor.
- One August Day (1998) by Charlotte Morgan
Revisits Hurricane Camille in 1969 and its impact on the lives of the people of
the Gulf Coast.
- Gingerbread Man (1998) directed by Robert Altman
A group of people in Savannah are trapped by a hurricane as an asylum escapee,
Robert Duval, threatens to have his revenge on them.
- Storm Tracker (1999) directed by Harris Done
In this made-for-TV movie starring Martin Sheen and Luke Perry, a University of
Miami meteorology professor gets involved in a renegade Air Force project to
control hurricanes.
- Second Wind (1999) by Dick Francis
Francis takes a break from the horsey set to spin a yarn about a BBC TV
meteorologist who goes on a hurricane hunting joy ride.
- Windows on Heaven (2000) by Ron Rozelle
A novel based on accounts from the 1900 Galveston hurricane in which over 8000
people perished.
- Hurricane : Of the 1900 Galveston Hurricane (2004) by Janice A.
Thompson
An inspirational novel about the people of Galveston surviving the hurricane of
1900 and rebuilding their city.
- Zero Hour (2003) by Benjamin E. Miller
Antarctica is melting and its suddenly warm waters thereaten to spawn a super
hurricane. A world famous MIT professor is consulted about his theory on
hypercanes, and something's up with those wacky penguins.
- Hurricane 38 (2004) by Gaylord Meech
Based on news accounts and family letters, this novel is about people trapped
by the Great New England hurricane of 1938.
- Category Five (2005) by Philip S. Donlay
A mystery man founds a scientific organization called Eco-Watch. When he flies
its jet into a hurricane with 300 mph winds and get trapped in the eye he must
come clean about his past in order to save the day.
- 4 Hours (2005) directed by Greff Chanpion
A made-for-TV movie based very loosely on the evacuation of patients from a Houston hospital as Tropical Storm Allison threatens to inundate the area. Sim Aberson brought this one to our attention.
- Category 7: The End of the World (2005) Directed by Dick Lowry
CBS must've felt "Category 6" wasn't bad enough, so they made this sequel. Randy Quaid's "Tornado Tommy" is the only character brought back for the follow-up, which is ironic since his was the only main character in the original to die. Falling chunks of the mesosphere combine with urban heat islands to spawn global spanning superstorms (huh???). The best part is the ending when Gina Gershon assures the public that FEMA will be there to help them when disaster strikes.
- Invasion (2005-6) Directed by Thomas Schlamme
The ABC television series is set in Homestead, FL following a devastating hurricane, which has released a race of alien, glow-in-the-dark squid creatures that turn Air Force Hurricane Hunters into superhuman hybrids. The series was cancelled after its initial season, with no resolution to the question, "Does global warming cause more squid people?" Thanks to Sim Aberson for reminding us to include this one.
- Der Untergang der Pamir (2006) Directed by Kaspar Heidelbach
"The Loss of the Pamir" is a fictional account of the sinking of the German sailing ship Pamir in Hurricane Carrie in 1957. Danke Herr Docktor Aberson fur diesen Eintritt.
- Katrina's Wake (2006) Directed by Kathilynn Phillips
A fictional account of a family trapped in their attic by the flood waters following Katrina in New Orleans' Ninth Ward. Again, thanks to Sim Aberson for pointing this one out.
- Honeymoon Hurricane (2006) by Pamela Rowan
Several people, including a honeymoon couple, head to Sanibel Island for vacation only to be trapped there during a hurricane.
- Hurricane (2006) by Karen Harper
Two single parents desperately try to find their children as a hurricane swerves to menace their southwest Florida community.
- Hurricane Hannah (2006) by Sue Civil-Brown
A female jet pilot named Hannah makes an emergency landing on a small tropical island, and must wait out the passage of Hurricane Hannah while becoming familiar with the eccentric locals.
- The Mote in Andrea's Eye (2006) by David Niall Wilson
Storm seeders battle a monster hurricane, but it disappears into the Bermuda Triangle, along with the seeding plane.
- Superstorm (2007) Directed by Julian Simpson
A made-for-BBC movie, starring Tom Sizemore and Nicola Stephenson. In the future, global warming has spawned larger, more devastating hurricanes. Project StormShield is formed to, once again, investigate modifying hurricanes. However, someone seems determined to use their technology even if the scientists have moral quandaries. Originally a three parter on the BBC, it was trimmed to two hours when rebroadcast in the US by the Discovery Channel. Thanks to Julian Heming for notifying us about this.
- Windstorm and Flood: A Novel (2007) by Rosalind Brackenbury
Set in Key West, where weather and Cuban politics mix.
- Rebel Island (2007) by Rick Riordan
Yet another honeymoon couple are trapped on an island as a monster hurricane looms. This time they must solve a murder mystery and confront their past before the storm strikes. And you thought buying plywood before a hurricane was tough.
- Acts of Nature (2007) by Jonathon King
A PI and his police girlfriend find their vacation at a Florida fishcamp interrupted by a hurricane, scavengers, and gunmen.
- Elevator (2008) by Angela Hunt
A trio of women (the wife, the mistress, and the cleaning woman) are trapped in an elevator as Hurricane Felix menaces Tampa, Florida.
- Hurricane: A Novel (2008) by Terry Trueman
Based on the devastation Hurricane Mitch wrought on Honduras as seen through the eyes of a young man.
Last Modified 7/18/2008
What referred articles were written in recent years
about tropical cyclones?
Contributed by Chris Landsea
Click on the year here :
| 1991 | 1992 | 1993 | 1994 | 1995 | 1996 |
| 1997 | 1998 | 1999 | 2000 | 2001 | 2002 |
| 2003 | 2004 | 2005
What are some important dates in the history of
hurricanes and hurricane research?
Contributed by Neal Dorst
Hurricane Timeline
- 1494 During his second voyage, Christopher Columbus shelters
his fleet from a tropical cyclone. This is the first written European account
of a hurricane.
- 1502 During his fourth voyage Columbus warns the governor of
Santo Domingo of an approaching hurricane, but is ignored. A Spanish treasure
fleet sets sail and loses 20 ships with 500 men.
- 1565 A French fleet sent to support Ft. Caroline is devastated
by a hurricane. The Spaniards at St. Augustine massacre the colonists at Ft.
Caroline ensuring Spanish control of East Florida.
- 1609 The British ship Sea Venture is damaged by a
hurricane but manages to find refuge on uninhabited Bermuda. The island become
a British colony.
- 1635 The Great Colonial Hurricane strikes the young
Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth colonies.
- 1667 The Dreadful Hurricane strikes the Virginia colonies.
- 1702 A rare hurricane strikes England. Daniel Defoe gathers
eyewitness accounts and publishes them in "The Storm".
- 1743 A hurricane prevents Ben Franklin from observing a lunar
eclipse in Philadelphia. When he later learns his brother in Boston experienced
the storm much later, he surmises that hurricanes don't move in the direction
that the winds are blowing. Also, Professor Winthrop of Harvard makes first
detailed pressure and tide measurements during this hurricane.
- 1780 The Great Hurricane leaves over 22,000 dead across the
Antilles.
- 1819 Professor Farrar of Harvard observes winds as hurricane
passes Boston and concludes that the storm is a large vortex.
- 1831 William Redfield observes damage across Connecticut from
a hurricane and finds the winds swirled in a counter-clockwise pattern. He
begins compiling hurricane tracks.
- A major hurricane strikes Barbados. Lt. Col William Reid of the Royal Engineers
is sent to survey the damage.
- 1837 Racer's Hurricane devastates much of the Gulf coast.
- 1838 Reid publishes his "Law of Storms" which advises mariners
on how to avoid a hurricane at sea.
- 1847 Reid establishes a hurricane warning network in Barbados.
- 1848 The Smithsonian Museum organizes a network of weather
observers across the United States and its territories.
- 1855 Andres Poey publishes a chronology of over 400 hurricanes
since the time of Columbus.
- 1856 A hurricane wipes out the resort on Last Island,
Louisiana.
- 1865 Manila Observatory is founded in the Philippines with Fr.
Faura as its first director. Begins study of typhoons and creates an observing
network.
- 1870 Fr. Benito Viñes becomes head of Meteorological
Observatory at Belen College in Havana, and begins research on hurricanes. He
establishes an observing network across Cuba.
- The United States Government forms its weather service.
- 1873 The National Weather Service issues its first hurricane
warning.
- 1875 Vines issues his first hurricane warning.
- 1879 Faura makes first typhoon forecast.
- 1893 The deadliest hurricane year in U.S. history, as the "Sea
Islands" hurricane kills 1000 to 2000 people, the "Chenier Caminada" hurricane
causes about 2000 deaths, and another major hurricane strikes the Carolinas in
mid-October.
- 1897 Fr. Algue' publishes book cataloging and categorizing
typhoon tracks.
- 1898 The U.S. Weather Bureau establishes a hurricane warning
center at Kingston, Jamaica. After the Spanish-American War this is moved to
Havana.
- 1900 A devastating hurricane strikes Galveston resulting in
over 8000 deaths (or perhaps as many as 12,000).
- Edward Garriott writes USWB Bulletin H "West Indian Hurricanes".
- 1902 Weather Bureau moves its hurricane forecast center to
Washington, DC.
- 1909 Grand Isle, LA is struck by a major hurricane, killing
350 people.
- 1913 Oliver Fassig publishes "Hurricanes of the West Indies".
- 1919 Sakuhei Fujiwara notes that hurricanes move with the
larger scale synoptic flow.
- Over 600 deaths are caused by a hurricane striking the Florida Keys and then
Corpus Christi, Texas.
- 1921 Fujiwara publishes paper on the interaction of two
tropical cyclones noting what becomes known as the "Fujiwara Effect".
- 1922 Edward Bowie observes that most hurricanes move
anti-cyclonically around the subtropical ridge.
- 1924 Mitchell publishes "West Indies Hurricanes and other
Tropical Cyclones" in Monthly Weather Review.
- 1926 Issac Cline publishes his major book "Tropical Cyclones".
- The Great Miami hurricane crashes into Florida causing tremendous damage and a
month later another hurricane strikes Havana causing over 600 casualties.
- 1928 The Lake Okeechobee hurricane kills nearly 2500 people.
Also known as the 'San Felipe' hurricane in Puerto Rico where it killed over
300 people.
- 1935 The Weather Bureau revamps its hurricane warning service,
and divides responsibilities between New Orleans, Jacksonville, San Juan, and
Boston.
- The Labor Day hurricane hits the Florida Keys with over 400 killed. This is the
most intense hurricane to have been recorded in the U.S..
- 1938 The New England hurricane strikes Long Island and Rhode
Island causing over 600 deaths.
- Ivan Tannehill publishes "Hurricanes, Their Nature and History".
- 1939 Fr. Deppermann publishes "Some Characteristics of
Philippine Typhoons" in which he presents a theoretical model of tropical
cyclones.
- 1940 Gordon Dunn demonstrates that most Atlantic hurricanes
form from tropical easterly waves rather than baroclinic zones.
- 1943 Major Joseph Duckworth flies his trainer airplane into a
Gulf hurricane proving the utility of this method of reconnaissance.
- The hurricane warning center is moved from Jacksonville to Miami where a joint
center with the Navy and Air Corps is established.
- 1944 The Great Atlantic hurricane sweeps up the eastern
seaboard and causes 390 casualties, mostly at sea. This is the first hurricane
with scheduled aircraft reconnaissance and the first radar depiction of a
hurricane eye and spiral rainbands.
- Herbert Riehl and Major Robert Schafer find that large vertical wind shear is
inimical to tropical cyclone formation and development.
- Halsey's Third Fleet runs into Typhoon Cobra in the Pacific with the loss of 3
destroyers and 790 men.
- 1946 The Navy and Air Force organize Hurricane Hunter
squadrons in the Pacific and Atlantic.
- 1947 Navy planes seed an Atlantic hurricane as part of Project
Cirrus.
- Bob Simpson 'piggybacks' a research mission onto an Air Force reconnaissance
flight into a hurricane. This is the first detailed examination of the upper
level circulation of the hurricane core.
- 1947- 1948 Four hurricanes over two years strike South Florida
causing persistent flooding
- 1948 Eric Palmen publishes a study showing that hurricanes
require at least 80 F (26 C) water in order to form.
- 1950 The Weather Bureau officially begins naming hurricanes.
- Hurricane King strikes Miami and affects much of Florida.
- 1951 A 'piggyback' research mission is flown into Typhoon
Marge, measuring its warm core and record low pressure eye.
- 1954 Hurricane detected by camera on a Navy rocket. This
convinces the US Government of the utility of weather satellites.
- Hurricanes Carol and Edna strike New England in succession.
- Last of the 'piggyback' research missions is flown on an Air Force
reconnaissance flight into Hurricane Edna.
- Hurricane Hazel slams into the Carolinas and causes destruction all the way to
Toronto. Grady Norton dies during the ongoing effort to forecast this storm.
- 1955 Miami office of the US Weather Bureau is designated the
primary hurricane warning center responsibile for coordinating all forecasting
and warnings issued for hurricanes in the Atlantic.
- The US Weather Bureau founds the National Hurricane Research Project which
begins research flights into hurricanes the next year.
- Three hurricanes make landfall in North Caroline this year including Hurricane
Diane, the "Billion Dollar Hurricane".
- Tannehill publishes "The Hurricane Hunters" about aircraft reconnaissance.
- 1956 Riehl and Lt. William Haggard develop the first
statistical hurricane track forecast scheme.
- Julian Adem describes the "beta effect" on the motion of hurricanes.
- 1957 Hurricane Audrey causes over 500 deaths in Louisiana and
Texas.
- 1958 Marjory Stoneman Douglas publishes "Hurricane", a popular
history about Atlantic hurricanes.
- NHRP launches hurricane beacon balloon in eye of Hurricane Helene. Monitors
wind center remotely for several hours.
- 1959 The Joint Typhoon Warning Center is formed in Guam,
combining the Navy and Air Force forecasting efforts.
- NHRP co-locates with Miami hurricane forecast office and the two become known
jointly as the 'National Hurricane Center'.
- NHRP scientists and hurricane forecasters begin a five year program to study
computer generated hurricane track forecasts and evaluated various other
objective techniques.
- Riehl and Joanne Malkus publish landmark paper on the energy balance of
Hurricane Daisy.
- 1960 TIROS I, the first experimental weather satellite, is
launched and promptly discovers an undetected tropical cyclone near New
Zealand.
- Hurricane Donna roars through the Florida Keys and then up to North Carolina
and Connecticut causing 50 deaths.
- Dunn and Banner Miller publish "Atlantic Hurricanes", the most up-to-date
summary of hurricane science at the time.
- 1961 The Research Flight Facility (RFF) is formed to manage
and operate the Dept. of Commerce's weather research aircraft.
- Navy planes seed Hurricane Esther, while RFF planes monitor storm changes.
- 1962 Project STORMFURY is begun, a joint effort of the Weather
Bureau, Navy, National Science Foundation, and Air Force to seed hurricanes to
reduce their winds,
- 1963 STORMFURY planes seed Hurricane Beulah with encouraging
results.
- 1964 NHC-64, the first in a long line of statistical-dynamical
track forecast programs, is used operationally.
- Vic Ooyama formulates his CISK theory. Jule Charney and Arnt Eliassen develop
similar theory about tropical cyclone formation.
- 1965 Hurricane Betsy crashes through the Bahamas, Florida
Keys, and Louisiana killing 75 people.
- 1968 Charlie Neumann and John Hope create a hurricane database
of Atlantic hurricanes known as HURDAT.
- Harry Hawkins and Daryl Rubsam publish influential papers on the structure and
energy budget of Hurricane Hilda.
- 1969 Ooyama creates first 2D dynamic hurricane simulation.
- Project BOMEX attempts to define the air-sea fluxes in the tropical Atlantic.
- Hurricane Camille strikes Mississippi coast as only the second Category Five
hurricane recorded in US history. She leaves 260 dead in her wake.
- Project STORMFURY seeds Hurricane Debbie on two days.
- 1970 With the formation of the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration the research laboratories, including NHRL, are
separated from the operational offices, including the Miami hurricane forecast
office, which now carries the 'National Hurricane Center' (NHC) name alone.
- Fred Sanders' SANBAR, the first barotropic hurricane computer forecast model,
is put into operation at the National Hurricane Center.
- A tropical cyclone rushing up the Bay of Bengal causes over half of a million
deaths in Bangladesh and India.
- 1971 Richard Anthes creates the first 3D hurricane simulation.
- Project STORMFURY seeds Hurricane Ginger. This is the last field experiment
carried out by the Project.
- 1972 Neumann develops CLIPER, a statistical hurricane track
forecast scheme, used as a benchmark for other model's forecast skill scores.
- Roland Madden and Paul Julian describe a global scale pressure wave which seems
to enhance tropical convection known as the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO).
- Hurricane Agnes floods areas along the eastern seaboard causing over 120
deaths.
- Bob Burpee publishes a paper explaining the origin and structure of easterly
waves.
- 1974 The Navy disbands its Hurricane Hunter squadrons.
- The GATE experiment in the east Atlantic measures tropical waves as they come
off the African coast.
- Cyclone Tracy devastates Darwin, Australia.
- 1975 Vern Dvorak proposes a scheme to estimate tropical
cyclone strength from satellite pictures.
- NHC director Bob Simpson works with engineer Herb Saffir to modify the latter's
hurricane damage scale to include wind speed regimes, creating the
Saffir-Simpson scale.
- 1977 A tropical cyclone in India kills over 10,000.
- 1979 Neumann and Brian Jarvinen develop SHIFOR, a statistical
scheme to forecast hurricane intensity, used as a benchmark for intensity
forecast skill scores.
- 1980 Hurricane Allen roars through the Caribbean and Gulf of
Mexico as a Category Five hurricane.
- 1982 The first Synoptic Flow experiment is flown around
Hurricane Debby to help define the large scale atmospheric winds that steer the
storm.
- Richard Anthes publishes "Tropical Cyclones, Their Evolution, Structure, and
Effects".
- Hugh Willoughby, Jean Clos, and Mohamed Shoreibah publish a paper on hurricane
eyewall cycles.
- 1983 Project STORMFURY is officially ended.
- Hurricane Alicia forms from an old frontal boundary in the Gulf of Mexico and
hits Galveston and Houston.
- 1984 William Gray and his team issue the first hurricane
seasonal forecast.
- 1985 Willoughby, Bob Black, Stan Rosenthal, and Dave Jorgensen
write an assessment of Project STORMFURY which documents several flaws in the
assumptions in planning the experiments that call the results into question.
- Hurricane Gloria roars up the eastern seaboard threatening New York City, but
eventually makes landfall on Long Island.
- 1987 The Air Force disbands its Pacific Typhoon Chasers
squadrons.
- 1988 Hurricane Gilbert has the lowest central pressure (888
mb) ever estimated for an Atlantic hurricane just before striking the Yucatan
peninsula.
- 1989 Hurricane Hugo makes a direct hit on Charleston, SC and
causes over 20 casualties.
- BAM, the Beta and Advection Model, and VICBAR, a nested barotropic hurricane
track forecast model become operational.
- 1990 Mark DeMaria and John Kaplan create SHIPS a statistical
hurricane intensity forecast scheme.
- Roger Pielke publishes "The Hurricane".
- TCM-90 Experiment attempts to define factors contributing to typhoon motion
such as synoptic winds and the beta effect.
- 1991 TEXMex is an project carried out in the eastern Pacific
to examine the genesis of tropical cyclones.
- The Air Force transfers its Hurricane Hunters to the Air Force Reserves.
- 1992 Hurricane Andrew levels parts of south Florida and causes
over $26 billion in damages there, in the Bahamas, and Louisiana.
- NCEP's Aviation model becomes operational.
- TCM-92 Experiment combines satellite and aircraft observations to better define
tropical cyclogenesis.
- Hurricane Iniki hits Kauai in Hawai'i as a Category 4 storm.
- 1995 In one of the busiest Atlantic hurricane seasons in
decades, Hurricane Opal rapidly intensifies as it approaches the Florida
panhandle, only to weaken just before landfall. It still causes $3 billion in
damage.
- Rapid scan high-resolution satellite loops are made of Hurricane Luis, showing
eye structure and motion.
- The GFDL model becomes operational. It provides both track and intensity
forecasts.
- 1996 Both the NOGAPS and UKMET track forecast models become
available to NHC.
- Mark Powell and Sam Houston publish detailed analyses of Hurricane Andrew.
- 1997 High resolution dropsondes are released in the eyewall of
Hurricane Guillermo in the eastern Pacific. These reveal wind structure that
surprise scientists.
- NOAA's GIV high altitude jet becomes operational, allowing examination of the
steering flow around hurricanes from a greater height.
- Super Typhoon Paka ravages Guam causing $500 million in damage.
- 1998 Hurricane Mitch kills more than 12,000 people in Honduras
and Nicaragua.
- CAMEX3, a NASA experiment run in conjunction with NOAA's Hurricane Field
Program collects detailed data sets on Hurricanes Bonnie, Danielle, and
Georges.
- 1999 Hurricane Floyd causes a massive evacuation from coastal
zones from northern Florida to the Carolinas. It comes ashore in North Carolina
and results in nearly 80 dead and $4.5 billion in damages.
- 2001 CAMEX4, a NASA experiment run in conjunction with NOAA's
Hurricane Field Program collects detailed data sets on Hurricanes Erin,
Gabrielle, and Humberto and Tropical Storm Chantal.
- Stan Goldenberg, Chris Landsea, Alberto Mestas-Nuñez and Bill Gray publish a
major paper in Science noting decadal swings in Atlantic hurricane
activity.
- 2003 Hurricane Isabel leaves a path of damage from North
Carolina to Pennsylvania costing $3 billion and 16 deaths.
- Mike Black and James Franklin' publish a paper on hurricane eyewall wind
profiles based on GPS dropsondes.
- Powell, Peter Vickery, and Timothy Reinhold publish a paper on drag
coefficients in hurricane force winds.
- 2004 Jason Dunion and Chris Velden demonstrate the delimiting
effect the Saharan Air Layer has on tropical cyclone development.
- Tropical Storm Bonnie and Hurricane Charley hit Florida within 24 hours of each other. It's true.
- Four hurricanes, Charley, Frances, Ivan, and Jeanne, strike Florida in one year, setting a new record.
- After Hurricane Ivan's landfall in the Florida panhandle, its remnants moved over the Atlantic, looped back across Florida into the Gulf of Mexico, reformed into a Tropical Storm, making landfall in Louisiana.
- 2005 In one of the busiest Atlantic hurricane seasons on record, 28 named storms form, 15 of them hurricanes, seven of which are major, and four reach Category Five status. For the first time the alternate Greek alphabet scheme for naming storms has to be employed.
- NASA's Tropical Cloud Systems and Processes Mission is set to investigate eastern Pacific disturbances, but is diverted to examining the activity in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico.
- Hurricane Dennis becomes the earliest major hurricane to form in the Atlantic.
- Project IFEX examines transmitting detailed information in the hurricane inner core in real-time to National Center for Environmental Prediction for inclusion in intensity models.
- Hurricane Katrina submerges the Mississippi/Alabama Gulf coast under a 27 foot storm surge killing 240 people. When New Orleans' levees fail, it causes over 1500 additional deaths and $81 billion in damages.
- Hurricane Wilma's central pressure reaches 882 millibars, the lowest recorded value in an Atlantic hurricane.
- 2006 African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analyses (AMMA) experiment examines the wind regimes over western Africa and their role in generating disturbances over the Atlantic.
- The NASA African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analyses (NAMMA) experiment similarly seeks to investigate these disturbances off the African coast using aircraft and the CALIPSO satellite. These systems were then handed off to NOAA IFEX scientists over the western Atlantic.
References:
Fitzpatrick, Patrick "Natural Disasters : Hurricanes" 1999 ABC-CLIO Publishers,
Santa Barbara, CA
Ludlum, David "Early American Hurricanes 1492-1870" 1963 Lancaster Press,
Lancaster, PA
Simpson, Robert ed. "Hurricane ! Coping with Disaster" 2003 American
Geophysical Union, Washington, DC
Last updated June 1, 2007